Biography of Macbeth

Macbeth was king of Scotland from 1040 to 1057. Although he is best known through the Shakespearean drama bearing his name, his historical importance lies in the fact that he was the last Celtic king of Scotland. [Read Indonesian]

The career of Macbeth is hidden in obscurity, but certain facts make it clear that Shakespeare's portrayal of the character of the man is at marked variance with reality. Macbeth was a person of great importance before he became king. As holder of the office of mormaer of Moray by virtue of inheritance from his father, he was a district chieftain and one of a handful of the most important men of the realm. His own ancestry could be traced back to royalty, and he was cousin to Duncan I (reigned 1034 1040), whom he served as commander of the royal army.

His wife, Gruoch, was also descended from royalty. Macbeth came to represent opposition to the king at several points: in him northern and Celtic sentiments found a defender against southern and Saxon influences supported by Duncan; and Macbeth had personal claims to kingship in his own name and in that of his stepson, Lulach.

There was some questions about the rights of Duncan to be king since, as grandson of Malcolm II, he represented the first instance of the rule of primogeniture in the history of the Scottish crown. The usual principle of succession required that the crown pass to a collateral of the king, not to heirs of the direct line. As Macbeth pressed his claim, he had tradition on his side; he won the crown by slaying Duncan at Bothgowanan in 1040.

During Macbeth's reign there was only one native uprising, that led by Abbot Crinan, Duncan's father. The realm was peaceful enough for Macbeth to make a pilgrimage to Rome in 1050. An invasion from Northumberland in the name of Duncan's son, Malcolm (later, Malcolm III), was repulsed in 1054. A second invasion, in 1057, led by Malcolm was successful, and Macbeth fell in battle; but rather than accept the "Saxon" Malcolm, Macbeth's supporters took Lulach for their king. Within a few months Lulach was defeated, and Malcolm was able to inaugurate the Canmore dynasty.

This dynastic revolution seems to be the basis for the identification of Macbeth as a monster and usurper. When later Canmore kings fought Celtic forces of decentralization, they exalted their ancestor Duncan and developed a hostile vision of Macbeth, the last Celtic king, so as to discredit the Celtic cause. The first written picture of Macbeth in this new light came in the Scotichronicon of John of Fordun (ca. 1380). From this base the legend grew until it reached its fullest statement in the writing of Raphael Holinshed, the immediate source for Shakespeare.
Source : http://biographyinstitute.blogspot.com/2008/06/macbeth.html

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Biography of Abraham Lincoln

"I have done nothing to make any human being remember that I have lived Yet what I wish to live for is to connect my name with the events of my day and generation, to link my name with something which will be of interest to my fellow men."

These were the words of Abraham Lincoln at the age of thirty two. A series of disappointments brought him to the point of wanting to end his life. Lincoln wrote the above words when he determined to make a fresh start in life. Later, he became one of the best known and best loved presidents of the United States of America. His name is famous throughout the world as the person who ended slavery in America.

Lincoln was born in Kentucky, USA, where his father worked as a carpenter. He lost his mother at an early age, but later his father married again. Lincoln and his sister became very fond of their stepmother.

Young Lincoln grew up to be a tall man with very large feet. His clothes did not fit him properly. The sleeves of his coat were too short and his trousers also did not fully cover his legs. At first sight, he did not look at all like the great leader that he was to become.

Lincoln first saw what slavery was really like when he was hired to take a boat load of produce to the city of New Orleans in 1828. Later, on a second visit to this city, he promised himself that he would abolish this practice completely.

Lincoln had not been to school on a regular basis, but he had learned to read and write and later became a lawyer. Although he was considered to be 'a queer fellow' by the people of his area because of the way he looked and dressed, he was well liked by them. This was because he had a good sense of humour and was able to make people laugh. His first and greatest love was said to be a woman named Anne Rutledge, whose father owned the tavern in the neighbourhood where Lincoln lived. It was Anne's father who suggested that Lincoln should enter politics.

Lincoln was first elected to the legislature of Illinois in 1834. In 1838 and in 1840, he was reelected to this office. During this time, he met Stephen Douglas, the man who was to be his rival in love for a short time and in politics for a much longer time. Mary Todd, the woman with whom both these men were in love, was from Kentucky. She chose Lincoln as her husband, but their marriage was not a happy one. In 1842, a year,after his marriage, Lincoln set up practice in law with a man named William H. Herndon. A close friendship grew between these two men, which lasted until Lincoln's death. Later, Herndon wrote Lincoln's biography.

In 1846, Lincoln was elected a member of the Congress. But his membership was not renewed because he introduced a bill for ending slavery in the District of Columbia. Disappointed, he went back to practising law. He lost interest in politics for some time and became well known for his honesty as a lawyer.

However, Lincoln did not stay away from politics for long. In 1854, the issue of slavery made him join politics again. He had to compete with Stephen Douglas, who tried to appease those states in the South, which supported slavery as well as those in the North that opposed slavery. Lincoln did not believe that half of the nation could go on with the practice of slavery while the other half was against it. He felt that the nation could not exist half slave and half free. However, Lincoln was defeated in this first fight against Douglas, for a seat in the United States Senate.

Despite this defeat, in May 1860, Lincoln was named the candidate of the Republican party for the Presidential election. During this time, the Democratic party attacked him fiercely. He was called 'a third rate country lawyer', 'a person who could not speak English properly' and many such names. However, he was elected the President of the United States at the end of it all. Four days after Lincoln was elected President, the Southern states began to pull out of the Union which formed the USA. These states in the South formed a union of their own which they called a Confederacy. Lincoln, who was saddened by this, fought to stop the other states from pulling out as well. Finally, the conflict between the North and the South became so bad that it led to a civil war. Lincoln tried to avoid this war but was unsuccessful in his attempt to do so.

To understand the political background of the American Civil War, it is necessary to describe how the USA came to be formed. In the 17th century, settlers from countries like England, France, Spain, Holland and Germany came to North America, which was then a newly discovered country. Some came to find wealth, others to find religious freedom, and yet others to extend the power of their home country by building an empire. The British King ruled this new land, part of which was also called New England. After the American War of Independence was won, the independent states formed themselves into a federation called the United States of America. Each state of this new federation kept a great deal of its independence in every area of government, although these states also had a common purpose. Thus, certain matters such as defence were given to a common government which acted for all the states.

The southern part of USA, which had also joined the federation, developed its agriculture on a plantation basis with the use of slave labour. The northern part was more involved with trade and industry, although agriculture remained important. There were no slaves in the North. In time, the question of slavery became a hot issue in the new states that joined the Union, since people in those states had not as yet made up their minds on the subject. The United States' constitution stated the right of all human beings to 'life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness', but it also upheld the right to private property. Slaves were private property. The idea that slaves were private property conflicted with the other idea that slaves were human beings with the right to liberty. This was the basic point which was argued about throughout the land.

There were many sides to this issue. Firstly, was human slavery right? By this time, slavery had been made unlawful in most countries of the world. Many people believed that it was grossly unjust to withhold the freedom of any human being. But the South had spent a lot.of money in buying slaves. Their social, economic and political life was organized around the ownership of slaves. Thus, it was not hard to see how important the practice of slavery had become to them.

There was also a political side to the problem of slave ownership by the Southern states. How practical was it to have a 'Union of states' in which some states were 'free' while others were 'slave'? Yet, this is what Lincoln's rival Douglas wanted. But the Southern states worried that with a larger number of the states in the Union being 'free', slavery would be completely abolished. They felt if this happened, they would be ruined financially, socially and politically. The only answer seemed to be to form two separate unions. But this did not work either.

Shortly after Lincoln was elected the President, the Southern states pulled out of the Union. On 12 April 1861, the South opened fire on the North at a place called Fort Sunter. The Civil War or the 'War Between the States' had begun.

There were great differences between the North and the South. The North had a much bigger white population. They were better at producing industrial goods while the South was better at agriculture. In many ways, the North had a great advantage over the South, but the army of the South was well trained and the greater part of the war took place in the South. Thus they were able to fight better. The war was not won very easily. But as we know, after some defeats, the North finally won the war. While the war was on, Lincoln, who had insisted on having an election at the end of his term of office as President, was re elected to serve another term.

In November 1863, on the battlefield of Gettysburg, Lincoln gave a speech, which became famous for all time. He spoke of “…a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” These words from Lincoln's Gettysburg address speak of the two ideals liberty and equality on which America was built.

Lincoln met with a sudden death. While watching a play with his wife, Lincoln was shot by a man named John Wilkes Booth. His death came at a time when peace had at last been brought to the USA. Perhaps this was the final blow that was needed for the complete ending of slavery in the USA. After his death, Lincoln was recognized as a great man, and the ideals he stood for were upheld by the citizens of the country.

Source : http://biographyinstitute.blogspot.com/2008/05/abraham-lincoln.html

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Biography of Abul Wafa - The Mathematicians Genius

Muslim mathematicians phenomenal in the golden era of Islam was not only Al-Khwarizmi. In the 10th century AD, Islamic civilization is also a mathematician who once had no less powerful than Khwarizmi. Muslim mathematician whose name is somewhat less familiar sounds were named Abul Wafa Al-Buzjani. "He is one of the greatest mathematicians who have the Islamic civilization," said Mr. History of Science, George Sarton in his book titled Introduction to the History of Science. [Read Indonesian]

Abul Wafa was a versatile scientist. In addition to good in the field of mathematics, he was renowned as a famous engineer and astronomer of his time.

Gait and recognized his thinking in the sciences of Western civilization. As a form of recognition for his services to develop astronomy, astronomy organization mengabadikannya world became the name of one crater month. In the field of mathematics, Abul Wafa also contributed very much important for the development of science that count.

"Abul Wafa was the greatest mathematician in the 10th century AD," said Kattani. Imagine. Throughout his life, the science of employees have rendered a series of important innovations gave birth to the science of mathematics. He was recorded to write a critique of the idea Eucklid, Diophantos and Al-Khwarizmi's treatise has been lost unfortunately. The scientist had bequeathed the Book of Al-Us (Complete Book) which deals with arithmetic (arithmetic) practical. Other contributions are not less important in mathematics is the Book of Al-Handasa who reviewed the application of geometry. He also made ​​a large contribution in developing trigonometry.

Abul Wafa was recorded as the first mathematician who coined the general formula sinus. In addition, the mathematicians also sparked a new method to form the sinus table. He also confirmed the value of sine 30 degrees to where desimel eighth. Even more impressive again, Abul Wafa make a special study of tangent and compute a tangent table.

If you ever studied mathematics would never know the term secan and co secan. Apparently, Abul Wafa was the first to introduce a mathematical term that is very important. Abu Wafa was known to be a genius in the field of geometry. He was able completion of geometry issues with very agile.

Fruit thinking in mathematics is very influential in the Western world. In the 19th century AD, Baron Carra de Vaux had taken a coined the concept secan Abul Wafa. Unfortunately, in the Islamic world in fact his name is rarely heard. Almost never, Islamic civilization history lesson that is taught in the country to review and introduce the figure and thought of fruit Abul Wafa. How ironic.

Indeed, all-around scientist named Abu al-Wafa Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Ismail Ibn Abbas al-Buzjani. He was born in Buzjan, Khurasan (Iran) on June 10, 940/328 H. He studied mathematics from his uncle named Abu Omar al-Maghazli and Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Ataba. Meanwhile, the science of geometry known from Abu Yahya al-Marudi and Abu al-Ala 'Ibn Karnib.

Abul Wafa grew up in the era of awakening of a new Muslim dynasty that ruled Iran in the region. Buwaih Dynasty named it the Persian power in the region - Iran and Iraq, in the year 945 until 1055 AD Buwaih Sultanate flag stuck in between periods of transition of power from Arabic to Turkish. Dynasty derived from Turkish tribes were able to overthrow the rule of the Abbasid dynasty centered in Baghdad at the time of Ahmad Buyeh leadership.

Buwaih Dynasty moved the capital city of Baghdad when his government to Adud Ad-Dawlah ruled from 949 until 983 AD Ad-Dawlah Adud government strongly supports and facilitates the scientists and artists.

Support is what makes Abul Wafa decided to migrate from his hometown to Baghdad. The scientists from Khurasan was then decided to dedicate himself to science in the court ad-Dawlah Adud in the year 959 AD Abul Wafa was not the only mathematician who devoted himself to science in the palace.

Another mathematician who also worked at the palace Adud ad-Dawlah among others, Al-Quhi and Al-Sijzi. In the year 983 AD, a succession of leadership in Buwaih Dynasty. Adyd ad-Dawlah replaced his son called Sharaf ad-Dawlah. Just like his father, the new sultan was also strongly supports the development of mathematics and astronomy. Abul Wafa was more comfortable working in the palace.

Love of the sultan in astronomy soared when he wanted to build an observatory. Abul Wafa and his friend Al-Quhi sulatan even realize his ambition. Obser vatorium astronomy was built in the park is tana sultan in Baghdad. Abul Wafa's hard work was successful. The observatory was officially opened in June 988 AD

To observe the stars from the observatory, in particular Abul Wafa build a wall quadrant. Unfortunately, the observatory did not last long. Once Sultan Sharaf ad-Dawlah died, the observatory was then closed. A series of major works have been produced Abul Wafa during dedicated himself in the palace of the sultan Buwaih.

Some valuable books he wrote, among others; Book fima Yahtaju Ilaihi al-Kuttab wa al-Ummal min 'Ilm al-Hisab a book on arithmetic. Two copies of the book, unfortunately not complete, is now in the library of Leiden, the Netherlands and Cairo Egypt. He also wrote "Kitab al-Kamil".

In geometry, he wrote "Kitab fima Yahtaj Ilaih as-Suna’ fi ‘Amal al-Handasa". The book was written for the specific request of the Caliph Baha 'ad-Dawla. The copies are in libraries Mosque Aya Sofya, Istanbul. Kitab al-Majesti book by Abul Wafa was the most famous of all the books he wrote. The copies are also incomplete national library is now stored in Paris, France.

Unfortunately, in her treatise on criticism of the ideas of Euclid, Diophantus and al-Khwarizmi was destroyed and lost. Really modern civilization owes to Abul Wafa. The results of research and his work is inscribed in a line of books gives a very significant influence to the development of science, especially trigonometry and astronomy.

The greatest mathematician in the 10th century it was closed on July 15, the age of 998 in Baghdad, Iraq. However, the results of his work and his thinking is still alive.

Eternal in Moon Crater
Abul Wafa was phenomenal. Although in the modern Islamic world his name was not too well known, but in the West figures it is very shiny. No wonder, if the Muslim scientists were so honored and respected. Western people still call it by name Abul Wafa. To respect the devotion and dedication in developing astronomical name was immortalized in the crater of the moon.

Among a series of Muslim scholars and scientists who have the Islamic civilization, only 24 characters are immortalized in the crater of the moon and has received recognition from the International Astronomical Organization (IAU). Of the 24 officially recognized Muslim leader IAU as the name of the moon crater gradually in the 20th century AD, between the years 1935, 1961, 1970 and 1976. one of them Abul Wafa.

Most, Muslim scientists in the crater adadikan month with the Western nickname. Abul Wafa was one of the scientists who just caught in the crater at the moon with the original name. Crater months Abul Wafa 1:00 coordinates located in the East, East 116.60. The diameter of the moon crater Abul Wafa reach 55 km in diameter. The depth of the crater that month of 2.8 km.

Location months Abul Wafa crater located near the equator of the moon. Located adjacent to the crater sepasangang Ctesibius and Heron in the east. In the south-west of the moon crater Abul Wafa there Vesalius crater and in the northeast there is a larger moon crater named King. That world of modern astronomy recognize service and contributions as an astronomer at the X. century

Mathematics ala Abul Wafa
One of the biggest service provided by Abul Wafa for the study of mathematics is trigonometry. Trigonometry comes from the word trigonon = three angles and metro = measure. This is is a branch of mathematics dealing with angles triangles and trigonometric functions sinus, cosinus, dan tangen.

Trig has a relationship with the geometry, although there is disagreement about what to do, for some, trigonometry is a part of geometry. In trigonometry, Abul Wafa has introduced the tangent function and improved methods of calculating trigonometry tables. He also said to solve a number of problems relating to spherical triangles.

In particular, Abul Wafa successfully prepared formula that became the identity of trigonometry. This is the formula that generates it:

sin(a + b) = sin(a)cos(b) + cos(a)sin(b)
cos(2a) = 1 - 2sin2(a)
sin(2a) = 2sin(a)cos(a)

In addition, Abul Wafa also managed to establish a formula for the parabolic geometry, namely :

x4 = a and x4 + ax3 = b.

Important formulas is just a piece of Abul Wafa result of thinking that still survive. His ability to create new mathematical formulas to prove that Muslim mathematicians Abul Wafa was a very genius.

Reference:
- http://archive.kaskus.us/thread/3450909/20

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Biography of Al Razi (865-925) - The Chemists

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi or recognized as Rhazes in the West is one of Iran's science expert who lived between the years 864-930. He was born in Rayy, Tehran on H./865 in 251 and died in 313 H/925.

At the beginning of life, al-Razi was so interested in art music. However, al-Razi also interested in many other sciences, so most of his life was spent to study sciences such as chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. [Read Indonesian]

Although in the end he was known as a medical expert such as Ibn Sina, al-Razi in the first place is a chemist. According to a history that is quoted by Nasr (1968), al-Razi left the world of chemistry because of his eyesight began to blur due to experimental-chemistry experiments that meletihkannya and armed with an extensive knowledge of their chemical and then pursue the medical-medicine, which seemed to interest him in his youth.

He said that a patient who has recovered from his illness was caused by a chemical reaction response contained in the patient's body. In a relatively fast, he founded the hospital in Rayy, one of the famous hospital as a center for research and medical education.? Some time later, he is also believed to lead the hospital in Baghdad.

Some western scientists argue that he is also the originator of modern chemistry. This is evidenced by the results of the paper and the findings of experiments.

Al-Razi has successful to provide complete information from some chemical reactions as well as descriptions and designs more than twenty instruments for chemical analysis. Al-Razi to give a simple description chemistry and rational. As a chemist, he was the first people which capable of producing sulfuric acid and some other acids and use of alcohol for fermentation of sweet substances.

Several scientific papers in the field of chemistry which he create, namely:

1. Kitab al Asrar, who discusses the technique of handling chemical substances and their benefits.
2. Liber Experimentorum, Ar-Razi discussed the division of substances into the animals, plants and minerals, which became the forerunners of organic chemistry and inorganic chemistry.
3. Sirr al-Asrar :
• Science and the search for drugs rather than a source of plants, animals and minerals, as well as its symbol and the best type for each one to be used in treatment.
• Science and equipment are essential for chemistry and pharmacy.
• Science and the seven ordinances as well as chemical techniques involving the processing of mercury, sulfur (sulfur), arsenic and other metals such as gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron.

According to HG Wells (the famous western scholars), Muslim scientists are the first group mengasas chemistry. So no wonder if they have developed the chemistry for nine centuries started from the eighth century BC.

http://mgmpkimia.wordpress.com/tokoh-kimia/al-razi-865-925/

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